Is Psychology a Science? Theories and Research Methods

Is Psychology a Science? Theories and Research Methods Is psychology a science? Discuss with reference to scientific method and bias in psychological research. Psychology can be viewed in a variety of ways as accords to the many schools of thought that pertain to psychology. From its origins in philosophy, psychology has undergone a variety of classifications. The major scientific paradigms born from philosophical enquiry were the school of empiricism and the school of rationality. Essentially, these two approaches dictated the direction that psychology must take if it was to be regarded as scientific. One of the first schools of thought in psychology was heavily concerned with its reputation as a scientifically validity enquiry. This was to be known as the behavioural approach to psychology or the behavioural perspective. The behavioural perspective was devised by Watson who used observation to determine evidence. As a consequence of according to the governing principles of objective scientific research, Watson rejected the notion of any internal psychological mechanisms as he believed that this could not be quantifiably measured (Miell et al, 2002). All Watson was interested in was the observable external phenomena, which meant the analysis of behaviour. Consequently, Watson placed an emphasis on psychology as primarily a learning phenomenon. A fundamental distinction that occurs within behaviourism is within this role of learning. Essentially, two approaches formed called classical and operant conditioning. Research into classical conditioning was defined by physiologist Pavlov who was also concerned with scientific analysis. Pavlov observed that in relation to certain stimuli dog’s behaviour could be conditioned through association (Miell et al, 2002). Using a dogs’ biological respons e to hunger, Pavlov was ble to scientifically demonstrate that there was a basic relationship between an observable stimulus and the animals learned response. Whilst in operant conditioning, Skinner was able to ascertain that there was a pre-conceived notion in the environment that led the animal to learn through a process of trial and error, which led to observable schedules of behaviour (Skinner, 1946/1990). In both classical and operant conditioning we can see that learning is defined as a scientifically observable and so provable modification of behaviour caused by association and manipulation of the environment. However, this approach clearly lacks greater insight into the role of the mind, its cognitive processes and also suffers from being based upon animal and not human studies. The cognitive approach addresses the human capacity to categorise, generalise and conceptualise certain phenomena. Primarily concerned with the functioning of the mind itself it engaged in the scientific analysis notions such as memory, perception and categorisation (Miell et al, 2002). Unhappy at the flaws in behavioural psychology, cognitive psychologist Bruner, devised a test to see how we mentally constructed categories. Unlike the objective approach of conditioning, Bruner suggested that this was an engaging intelligent procedure that was performed by way of hypothesis testing stages of acceptance and rejection based upon trial (Bruner et al, 1956). To be valued as scientific, a test involving a variety of shapes were used in a variety of conditions. Some of these conditions shared the same number of shapes, some the same colour of shape, whilst others shared the same number of borders. No two varieties were identical. From the results of this experiment, Bruner was able to sur mise that there were tw forms of cognition that had been present. Successive scanning, which tested one hypothesis at a time and conservative scanning, which sought to eliminate classes of hypotheses (Bruner et al, 1956). Unlike the behavioural approach, we can see from the findings and classifications of these studies that an attempt is being made to understand the intelligent human mind with regards to categorisation. However, categorisation is not accepted by everyone in the field of science and its objective validity does suffer from critical enquiry. For instance, addressing the empiricism versus rationalism argument, many have argued that the categories in the study are innate rather than learned (Chomsky Fodor, 1980). This strengthens the behavioural notion that the conceptual structure of the mind is open to interpretation, and so cannot be considered an entirely scientific approach to psychology. Another school of thought within psychology is that concerned with the social aspect. This is primarily interested in the role that social influence has on our behaviour. For instance, in the findings of a test put forward by Sherif, we can see the extent to which people will use the word of others and the resource of group norms to ascertain a truth about something. This is an important concept with regards to the influence of social norms as we can observe that our psychology is influenced by our conformity to social norms (Sherif, 1936). Similarly, a test devised by Asch revealed that conformity of an individual to a norm was indicative of individual identity (Asch, 1956). Similarly, research by Baron indicated that through a lack of responsibility that an individual felt to correct and deviate from a social norm an account could be made to configure their potential to conformity (Baron et al, 1956). Essentially, these tests revealed that the role of responsibility was based upon conscriptions o social norms, attitudes, beliefs and ideologies. However, these findings suffer from being based upon social norms and cultural constructs such as identities and beliefs and so cannot be considered universal, objective principles that would accord to the main scientific schools such as physics and chemistry. Another key school of thought is psycho-analysis and developmental psychology. Stemmed from Freudian theory, psycho-analysis and developmental psychology is concerned with the development of the subject’s personality in relation to underlying motives and mainly sexually based desires and conflicts (Freud, 1917/1973). Using a notion of base primordial drives, Freud put forward various schemas of development that dictated our personality and variations in our behaviours, such as conforming to social norms. The agents at work within these drives and the accompanying stages of development were commonly referred to as defence mechanisms. Defence mechanisms were put forward as being ways in which the subject could cope with the real and disturbing psychological issues that they had to face throughout life, such as anxiety and confusion. These mechanisms consisted of such concepts as denial, projection and regression and are commonly established psychological phenomena that infor the core rationale of developmental and psycho-dynamic paradigms (Freud, 1917/1973). Although these factors are well established concepts within mainstream psychology, they still depend upon a structural paradigm to be understood. Much criticism has come in the form of humanistic approaches who have suggested that these models of development are dependent upon the objectifying of the subject and that this approach is a convenient theoretical model rather than being scientifically accurate. Another school of thought is one that actually rejects objective science at its core. The phenomenological approach to psychological study is primarily based upon perception and subjectivity. Formed as a way of countering the empirical approach to psychology that had led to the field of cognitive psychology, phenomenological psychology suggested that knowledge was learned entirely from the external environment via lessons that were encapsulated in our experience (Merleau-Ponty, 1964). Detaching from the scientific notion of tabula rasa, which had dominated the opposing stance to the rationality of science, Merleau-Ponty looked at the notion of perception and in particular how it was informed by phenomena, rather than through observation of objects taken from their natural environment. Fundamental to this approach is the notion that everything we experience accords to the phenomena in which it is presented, and so objective science cannot tell us about our psychological experience. Th is approach most ertainly rejects psychology, as well as many other enquiries, as a scientific pursuit. We can see from these schools of thought that to call psychology a pursuit of objective scientific fact is flawed. However, we can also see that there is a strong emphasis in each case placed upon validity. Even the rejection of objectively defined scientific principles shown by the phenomenological approach gives indication that validity and limitation of enquiry are paramount, which is surely the premise of scientific analysis. Bibliography Asch, S, E., (1956) Studies of independence and conformity. Psychology Monologues, 70. Baron, R, S., Vandello, J, A., Brunsman, B. (1996) The Forgotten Variable in Conformity Research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 70. Bruner, J, S., Goodnow, J, J., and Austin, G, A., (1956) A Study of Thinking New York: John Wiley and Sons. Chomsky, N., and Fodor, J, A., (1980) Statement of the Paradox, in Piatelli Palmarini, M. (ed.). Freud, S., (1917/1973) Introductory lecture on Psychoanalysis. Harmondsworth; Penguin. Merleau-Ponty (1964) The Primacy of Perception London: Routledge Miell, D., Phoenix, A. and Thomas, K. (2002) Mapping Psychology 1. Milton Keynes, Open University. Sherif, M., (1936) The Psychology of Social Norms. New Yoprk: Harper. Skinner, B, F., (1946/1990) Walden Two London: Collier Macmillan. Cell membrane: Structure and purpose Cell membrane: Structure and purpose BIOPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY ESSAY: CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AND PURPOSE Introduction Cell membrane is a biological barrier that separates the interior part of the cell (i.e. the Cytoplasm, nuclei and the other cell organelle) from the outer environment, thus permits cellular individuality and also gives shape to the cell. This membrane is a mixture of lipids, protein and carbohydrates, therefore is a complex structure. The membrane is semi-permeable and thus only allows selective ions and molecules to go through it into the cell or leave the cell. This is achieved by formation of concentration gradient across the membrane, which many biological processes depend upon. The movement of the biological molecules across the membrane is either passive, which happens without the input of cellular energy or active transport that requires the cell to use energy. The cell membrane also helps in maintaining cell potential. Proteins of the cell membrane form the essential component of the biological membrane since they function as pores, channels or transporters. Proteins thus have the capability of selective passage across the lipid bilayer. Some proteins that are embedded in the cell membrane act as molecular signals and therefore carry out communication. They act as receptors and receive signals from other cells or from the external environment and elicit a response in the cell. Some proteins function as markers which aid in identification of unknown cells. The membrane also aids in intercellular interactions. The lipid bilayer of the cell membrane is only a few nanometres thick and is not permeable to most molecules that are soluble in water, and hence acts as a barrier to regulate the transport of ions, proteins and other molecules through the membrane. Since the phospholipid bilayer is not permeable to many ions, it helps in the regulation of salt concentration and pH by regulating the pumping of ions in and out of the cell via proteins called ion channel pumps. The Fluid mosaic model is the most widely accepted biological membrane model that was proposed in the year 1972 by Singer and Nicolson. Floating in the phospholipid bilayer are molecules of protein, which is analogous to icebergs floating in a sea. The model is referred to as fluid because of the lateral motion of the bilayer macromolecules, and is referred to as mosaic because of the different molecular components [1][2][3][4]. Purpose of cell membrane Cell membrane performs the following functions: Membrane Transport of Small Molecules: Transport proteins present in the bilayer can transport polar molecules through the membrane. There are various types of membrane transport proteins: Uniport This simply moves the solute from one side to the other side of the membrane. Cotransport This system moves two solutes simultaneously across the lipid bilayer. They are two types of this transport-symport (solutes are sent in the same direction) and antiport (solutes are passed in opposite directions). These transports are come under the category of passive transport where no energy expenditure is involved. Here the solute moves from a higher concentration to a lower concentration gradient. Examples of this include channel proteins, which allow the solute to pass if they are of a specific charge or size. Carrier proteins bind to the solute and help in its movement through the bilayer.[5] There are two main categories of transport of molecules are there in cells: Active transport Passive transport Small molecules like oxygen, ethanol and carbon dioxide pass through the membrane by simple diffusion (passive transport) down a concentration gradient. Transport of macromolecules like proteins, polynucleotides and polysaccharides is done by active transport using ATP, against the concentration gradient. There are two types of active transport : 1) Exocytosis Process by which waste substances are removed from the cell by vesicle formation and expulsion [6]. 2) Endocytosis- The molecule causes the cell membrane to bulge inward, thus forming a vesicle. Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis where the whole cell is engulfed. Pinocytosis is another type when the external fluid is engulfed. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when the material to be transported binds to specific molecules in the membrane. Example: transport of insulin and cholesterol into animal cells [6]. Cell signalling across the membrane Transmembrane signalling occurs through the generation of a number of signals like cyclic nucleotides, calcium, phosphoinositides and diacylglycerol. Specific signals of neurotransmitters hormones and immunoglobulins bind to the specific receptors on the membrane, which are mostly integral membrane proteins. This is the Ca2+-phosphatidylinositol signalling pathway which plays a major role in transmembrane signalling in a large number of different cell types. This pathway leads to the activation of G-proteins. This initiates activation of phospholipase C and the subsequent formation of DAG and IP3 which triggers the generation of repetitive [Ca2+] spikes [7]. Intercellular intractions Gap junctions are structures that allow the small molecules that are up to ~ 1200 Da to be transported from one cells cytoplasm to the other. These structures contain proteins called connexins. Six connexins form a hemiconnexin and two hemiconnexins form a connexon. These connexions in the gap junction form cylindrical bridges through which substances are transported between cells [1][8]. The Fluid mosaic Model: This model is the widely accepted membrane model. The membrane has a biomolecular lipid bilayer layer. There are proteins that are inserted in it or bound to the surface. Integral membrane protein is the proteins that are embedded in the membrane they play a key role as transporters for various molecules that cannot enter through the cell membrane. The integral proteins have an extra-cellular domain and cytoplasmic domain and are separated by a non-polar region that holds it tightly in the membrane. Proteins that are loosely bound to the to the outer membrane are called the peripheral proteins. Many of the proteins that are present and almost all the glycolipids have an externally oligosaccharides chains that are exposed outside the membrane [1][9]. The membrane fluidity very much depends on the lipids concentration in the membrane. The hydrophobic chains of the fatty acids are much aligned therefore giving it a stiff structure. The transition(Tm) is the temperature at which the transition takes place from ordered to disordered state, this is the change that happens in the hydrophobic side chain. Cholesterol affects the fluidity of the membrane. It increases fluidity below Tm and decreases fluidity above Tm. Modifications to the fluid mosaic model state that the lipids and proteins in the membrane are not randomly distributed. Randomness occurs when interaction energy of these molecules are close to their thermal energies. Since interaction energies cannot be in a narrow range due to large number of interactions, there is very less chance for randomness to occur. Hence the model was found to be more mosaic than fluid [10]. The modified view of membrane model is shown in figure 7[10]. Specialised structures in the membrane: There are some special features in the membrane like lipid rafts, caveolae, tight junction, desmososmes, adherens junctions and microvilli. These are found in the recent years of research. Lipids Raft is the area in the membrane that has relatively higher concentration of cholesterol, sphingo-lipids and some proteins, than the other parts of the membrane. It plays a major role in cell signal transduction. This is under research that if we increase the amount of this and clustering them closely may increase the overall efficiency of the cell. Caveolae are special types of lipid rafts. Many of them have protein called caveolin-1 that is involved in the process. They were observed under electron microscope and were found to be flask-shaped. Proteins that are detected in this also play a role in signal transduction, example is insulin. Proteins found in this also play in role in folate receptor. This field is a growing interest for research. Tight Junctions are present on the surface of the membrane and their major function is to prevent diffusion of macromolecules between cells. They are present below the apical surface of the epithelial cells. They are made up of various proteins including occludin, various claudins and junctional adhesion molecules [1]. Desmosomes also called macula adherens are the specialised cell structures for cell to cell adhesion. Their function is to resist shearing force. They are mostly found in simple and stratified squamous epithelium [11]. Adherens junctions are the proteins that usually occur at cell- cell junction .They are made up of proteins like cadherins, ÃŽÂ ²-catenin, ÃŽÂ ±-catenin and sometimes delta catenin. Their function is to provide strong adhesion between adjacent cells. They hold the cardiac muscle cells firmly together as the heart beats and do not allow it to collapse [12]. Microvilli are very small finger like structures found on the cell membrane. They are mainly found on the epithelial cells, they increase the surface area of the cells therefore increasing the absorptive capacity of the cells. Actin filament extends from the end of these microvilli [13]. Components of cell membrane Cell membrane is a complex structure and is composed of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Different cell membranes have different compositions. Lipids Phospholipids: There are two major class of phospholipids out of which in the cell membrane the phosphoglycerides are the most commonly found ones. Phospholglycerides are esters that are made up of two fatty acids, phosphoric acid and a trifunctional alcohol. Phosphoglycerides with sphingomyelin have Sphingosine backbone instead of glycerol. They play a role in signal transduction. They are prominent in myelin sheaths [1]. Glycosphingolipids: These are sugar containing lipids that are present in the membrane. They have a backbone made of ceramides. These are amphipathic molecules consisting of a ceramide lipid anchor linked to an oligosaccharide chain of variable length and composition [1]. They are required for proper functioning of nervous system. Determining their function will help to understand neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, immune function and diseases of metabolism [14]. STEROLS The most import sterol in the membrane is cholesterol. Proteins in cell membrane Integral membrane proteins: also called intrinsic proteins t has its some part of the protein embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. Most of these proteins have hydrophobic side chains that interact with membrane phospholipids fatty acyl groups. They are called transmembrane proteins if they one or more membrane spanning domains. The transmembrane proteins of the membrane spanning domains are made up of ÃŽÂ ± helices or multiple ÃŽÂ ² strands [8]. These proteins are made up of two hydrophilic and one hydrobhobic region. The hydrophobic region traverses through the bilayer. They are asymmetric in nature. The transmembrane region of many integral membrane proteins is made up of a bundle of hydrophobic ÃŽÂ ±-helices [7]. Their major role is as transporters, and are also structural membrane-anchoring domains. They function by transporting hydrophilic molecules through the membrane. Many Integral Proteins Contain Multiple Transmembrane ÃŽÂ ± lpha Helices [8]. Examples: Insulin receptor, Glycophorin, Rhodopsin, CD36 and GPR30. Peripheral membrane proteins: They are also called as extrinsic proteins; they do not interact with hydrophobic core of the membrane phospholipid bilayer. They are bound to the membrane by interaction with the intergral proteins or are bound to the bilayer outer lipids polar heads groups. They are only present in the cytosolic region of the cell membrane. They play an important role in signal transduction. Some peripheral proteins are localized to the surface of the plasma membrane, these are called exoplasmic proteins. Peripheral enzymes are involved in the synthesis of different membrane components like lipids , cell wall oligosaccharides , or proteins. Membrane peripheral proteins are of five types: Structural proteins, channel proteins, transport or carrier proteins, enzymes and receptor proteins. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are attached to membrane lipids and proteins as short oligosaccharide chains. Proteins attached with sugar molecules are called glycoproteins and lipids attached with sugar molecules are called glycolipids. The carbohydrates form a protective coat called glycocalyx around the cell, which helps in cell recognition. Glycoprotein Glycoproteins are formed by glycosylation of proteins. There are two types: N-glycosylation (sugar links to nitrogen atom of asparagines residue) and O-glycosylation (sugar attaches to hydroxyl group of serine or threonine rsidues). Examples of glycoproteins found in the body are mucins, collagens, transferrins, immunogloulins, etc. Glycolipids Glycolipids are lipids linked to oligosaccharide chains. Examples include glycosphingolipids which contain a hydrophobic ceramide, N-acylsphingosine and saccharides. They are generally located on the outer membrane surface. The composition of the carbohydrate chain depends on the type of the cell and development of the organism.[9] Refrences: [1] Harper [2] http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CellMembranes.html [3] http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookCELL2.html [4] http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobooktransp.html [5] http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/cell_membranes.html [6] http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/molecule_transport.html [7] Chay, Lee, Fan, 1995 Appearance of Phase-locked Wenchbach-like Rhythms, Devils Staircase and Universality in Intracellular Calcium Spikes in Non-excitable Cell Models [9] The Fluid Mosaic Model of the Structure of Cell Membranes Cell membranes are viewed as two-dimensional solutions of oriented globular proteins and lipids. S. J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson [10] http://www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/membrane3.htm [11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmosome [12] http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/J/Junctions.html [13] Krause J. William (July 2005). KrauseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=cRayoldYrcUCpg=PA37HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=cRayoldYrcUCpg=PA37s Essential Human Histology for Medical Students. Universal-Publishers. pp. 37-. ISBN 9781581124682. Retrieved 25 November 2010. [14] ] Glycosphingolipid functions: insights from engineered mouse models, doi: 10.1098/rstb.2003.1268 Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 2003 358, 879-883 [15] [16] Endosytosis image: http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/cellbiology/index.php?title=2009_Lecture_6 excoystoisis http://cellbiology.med.unsw.edu.au/units/science/lecture0805.htm figure 1 Gap junction pic: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/membrane3.htm cell membrane pic http://www.microscopy.fsu.edu/cells/plasmamembrane/plasmamembrane.html

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Over the past decade it has been recorded that the elephant population has dropped by 62%. In 1977, 1.3 million elephants roamed the great plains of Africa. By 1997, only 60 thousand remained and by 2006, there were only 10 thousand wild elephants left in Africa. Unfortunately, these numbers are not getting any better. Today elephant poaching is illegal, but that is not stopping it from happening. Both African and Asian elephants are still being killed for their valuable tusks. The tusks of elephants are created of ivory. This has been an extremely valuable substance for years and killing elephants is one of the few ways people can obtain it. Money drives our world and our economy, so people will do a lot in order to get the money they want. That’s not the only cause of this epidemic, though. Not only do poachers want the elephant’s large tusks, but some hunters also consider elephants as a trophy animal. This means that people are killing elephants so they can bring t hem home and put their heads on display. It’s a way to gloat and illustrate their hunting skills. This pursuit of ivory and trophies by hunters is further damaging our ecosystem as well as the mental and emotional stability of elephants around the world. Research has now been able to help prove that elephants do not only suffer Physical damage from poaching, but they are also suffering from mental and emotional damage. After years of studying these enormous beauties, scientists have discovered that elephants are capable of complex thought and deep feeling of emotions, emotions being plural. Research has proven that elephants’ have a variety of emotions that they express during different times and situations in the wild. They react to events in a way that is so cl... ...a huge accomplishment to take down one of the biggest animals in the world. It illustrates the hunter’s strength, patience, and talent. Most trophy hunters would love to have an elephant to show. Hunts are usually supervised by a game warden. A technician also accompanies the hunters in order to make legal trophies, usually from the tusks and the feet. The meat of the elephants is disrupted among local people in the area. This helps decrease waste from the elephant and helps use more than just the ivory. In some regions of Africa, large game hunts may help to also generate more income to average and below average villages than conventional agriculture. This is usually due to the challenging environment for successful crop growth. Drought has recently been a growing cause of these poor conditions. It is affecting the people, and the animals in this habitat greatly.

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay

In the book, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Douglass chronicles his slave life during the mid 1800s. By informing his readership of the realities and cruelties of slavery, Douglass’ seeks to persuade Northerners to become involved in the abolitionist movement. He accomplishes this purpose by delivering his message throughout the entirety of the book — slavery is harmful to all participants – with the effective utilization of ethos, logos, and pathos. The trio works to support his thesis, and this support therefore aids Douglass’ overall purpose. Although each of the argumentative devices is effective, the most powerful component is pathos, which is a quality that evokes pity or sadness. Unlike ethos or logos, pathos speaks directly to the readers, in this case the North, and profoundly influences their emotions and thoughts on the issue of slavery. Therefore, pathos is the most effective strategy in Douglass’ narrative because it accomplishes the author’s purpose by sufficiently delivering his message, through the manipulation of emotions to Northern readers. Ethos is without a doubt an apparent strategy throughout Douglass’ narrative; in fact, the entire book is ethos. Douglass’ life was, at the time, living proof of the cruelties of slavery. He takes advantage of this fact in his narrative and describes almost every detail, being sure to leave out names whom he did not intend to offend or embarrass, and brings to reality the treatment of slaves in the 1800s. In addition, Douglass incorporates references to the Bible, often relating slaves’ lives to peoples’ lives in Biblical times. For example, â€Å"My friend Nathan Johnson (of whom I can say with a grateful heart, ‘I was hungry, and he gave me meat; I was thirsty, and he gave me drink; I was a stranger, and he took me in’).† This is a reference to Matthew 25:35, which discusses the importance of caring for others, even strangers. Douglass includes this passage to compare Nathan Johnson to a humble, selfless man that would care for anyone. Furthermore, the reference supports Douglass’ credibility as an educated man of God and a reliable non-fiction author. Just because he was once a slave, ignorant of freedom and all its blessings, including education, it did not stop him from brilliantly writing his narrative through which he sufficiently proves his credibility by means of correct grammar, references to the Bible and other highly respected pieces of literature, and the simple fact that he was once a slave and therefore contains the most reliable information. However, ethos is not the most effective strategy on his readers; it does not support his purpose or meaning as much as pathos does. Logos is also a strategy used throughout the entirety of the book, simply because it is a narrative of Douglass’ life, therefore it must be composed of non-fiction occurrences. He includes as much detail as he can, but he leaves out particular names and happenings in order to prevent embarrassment of the individual or even potential consequences. Despite his restrictions, Douglass still includes amazing thoroughness and accuracy. For example, â€Å"I left Master Thomas’s house, and went to live with Mr. Covey, on the 1st of January, 1833.† He uses three specific details in one tiny sentence, which just shows the reader his incredible memory and accuracy. Although his precision within the book is rather impressive to the Northern readers, the simple facts do not supply them with Douglass’ deeper meaning, that slavery is harmful to all participants. Rather, logos gives the readers the direct happenings of his slave life, but it does not reach out to the Northerners’ emotions, humans’ weakness and main influence to take action, to the extent pathos does. Pathos is a strategy in argument that aims to draw pity or sadness from the audience or reader, and it is often the most persuasive tool to accomplish a purpose. In Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Douglass uses a generous amount of pathos in order to persuade his Northern readers to become involved in the abolitionist movement. He accomplishes this purpose by including sad incidences he saw or experienced himself. For example, Douglass tells the story of his Aunt Hester being punished with a whipping, â€Å"He commenced to lay on the heavy cowskin, and soon the warm, red blood†¦came dripping to the floor. I was so terrified†¦that I hid myself in a closet.† This description of the first time he saw someone whipped is drawn out in detail purposefully; Douglass wants the reader to engage in the narrative and let his/her emotions drive them toward pity for slaves and hatred of slavery. He includes many other descriptions like this, but they all have the same purpose. Emotion drives many peoples’ actions, and Douglass wants to persuade his Northern audience to become active in the abolitionist movement by letting their emotion take over. Pathos also brings out the meaning of the essay; by explaining cruel experiences, Douglass includes proof of his meaning, that slavery is harmful to both the slave and the slaveholder. Northerners are persuaded by this meaning and affected by the traumatic incidences in the book, and are driven to involve themselves in the move to abolish slavery. Pathos is therefore the most effective strategy that encourages Northern readers to follow through with Douglass’ purpose. Douglass utilizes ethos, logos, and pathos in a brilliant way, but it is acceptable to claim that pathos had the largest effect on the readers of the North in the 1800s. While ethos and logos give the author credibility and information to discuss, pathos affects the reader directly. It becomes tiresome to hear of straightforward facts, like moving from master to master or plantation to plantation. The readers want to hear of excitement, so when Douglass talks about sad topics, it involves the reader, as well as affects their opinion of slavery. By taking advantage of pathos and the readers’ impressionable emotions, Douglass conveys his message and fulfills his purpose, and therefore, pathos is the most effective strategy in his book. Works Cited Douglass, Frederick, and Houston A. Baker. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1982. Print.

Functional Areas within Asda Essays

Functional Areas within Asda Essays Functional Areas within Asda Essay Functional Areas within Asda Essay If Asda dont change their objectives then they will start to lose capital, customers and market share.  Aims may need to change in order to satisfy the changing needs of the customers e.g. reduction in cost.  Asdas main aim is very unlikely to transform unless the vision and the focus of the whole business changes. This could happen if the owner is changed or the company is struggling in the market. How Swift Supplies ownership could change  Swift Supplies has been a sole trader since it started off in the year 2000 and it has been expanding since so the chance of it changing into another ownership is very likely.  There are a lot of factors that may affect Swift Supplies status of ownership.  If Swift Supplies do decide to change they may change into a LTD to get limited liability and get a basic idea of shares being sold and bought privately so that they have the experience if they want to change into a PLC. They may change into a partnership if the competition is too strong or its too hard to manage a business on by one person.  Swift Supplies is run by one person but he has four staff under his employment, three of them are his relatives and if Swift Supplies do form a partnership they might be a partnership of four. This is positive in a lot of ways because they might agree on most things and if they are struggling in money problems they may share money together to save money and survive. : They could also form a partnership with their competitors to increase market share and earn and share large amounts of profit.  Why Swift Supplies may change their aims and objectives  As Swift Supplies is a small business its aims and objectives dont change a lot because as it doesnt have different departments like Asda but they need to be changed if they are not met properly.  If theyre competitors are earning more then the objectives should be changed or if they have more customers than Swift Supplies.  If Swift Supplies are not meeting customer demand then their objectives may change or if their service towards their customers is not excellent. If theyre product quality falls below standard or if the products are not demanding than the aims and objectives need to be changed.  If theyre staff are using dishonest methods and are stealing from the company then not only the aims and objectives have to be changed but also the staff.  The most important of all is if their profits are decreasing and they are in financial distress than the company has to review all its objectives and win back customer loyalty and trust to earn them profit so they can survive and if they want to carry on running the business. Functional Areas within Asda  Asda is a vast organisation that has functional areas that execute certain functions frequently in relation to their specific purpose.  These functional departments are essential to the business as they set out to complete specific day to day tasks with ease.  A group of employees are stationed in the various different functional departments in relation to their roles and expertise that are applied in each department.  These functional areas are the backbone of large companies as they set out to operate different functions in order to maintain the business operating more efficiently. Asda is architected by a structure of functional areas as they combine together to produce a successful company.  Human Resources  All businesses whether large or small employ people to carry out essential work assigned to them by their superiors or the company owners.  So the Human Resources departments lone function is to employ staff and then look after their needs once they are in the company employment.  Recruitment  Asda like many other successful companies like to employ the most proficient employees in order to benefit from their abilities. Asdas recruiting employees locate a vacancy that needs to be occupied and than they identify the vacancy and decide to put up job descriptions that species which person is required, what skills they need to have and what responsibility they will be taking on.  When this is decided they progress on to advertise that vacancy at an appropriate location, where they predict skilled candidates may discover these vacancies.  When people respond to these job descriptions their CVs are examined by the human resources department and than human resources progresses on to call the selected candidates for interviews. They than select their chosen candidate and than in an appropriate manner notify the unsuccessful candidates.  Retention  When Asda has excellent employees they prefer them at their service for as long as possible or they would have to employ and retrain new staff which would be costly.  Human resources are responsible for analysing staff turnover-this is the rate at which staff departs the organisation. There might be a lot of factors that affect staff leaving Asda; human resources have to investigate their reasons for leaving.  Asda attempts to have fair and competitive terms and conditions of employment which not only suit the employee but also Asda. These conditions ensure that employees are paid at a reasonable rate in relation to their job, given holiday privileges and sick pay.  Asda ensures that these conditions are fair on employees and are similar to Asdas competitors to avoid conflict. Disciplinary Action  When employees start becoming a liability at the workplace, human resources try to take immediate disciplinary action to stop and prevent it from happening again.  The first action is to give a verbal warning to the employee but if the problem persists a written warning is also given which shows written proof that states if he/she continues their actions than it will lead them to their own dismissal.  If this warning is ignored than the employee is given a straightforward dismissal by human resources.

Virginia Colony in Colonial America

Virginia Colony in Colonial America In 1607,  Jamestown became Great Britains first settlement in North America, the first foothold of the Virginia Colony. Its permanency came after three failed attempts by Sir Walter Raleigh beginning in 1586 to attempt to establish a stronghold in the land he called Virginia after his queen, Elizabeth I. And its continued survival was very much in doubt for the first fifteen years. Fast Facts: Virginia Colony Also Known As: Colony and Dominion of VirginiaNamed After: Queen Elizabeth I (the Virgin Queen), named by Walter RaleighFounding Year: 1606Founding Country: EnglandFirst Known European Settlement: Jamestown, 1607Residential Native Communities: Powhatan, MonacansFounders:  Walter Raleigh, John SmithImportant People: Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, Thomas Dale, Thomas Gates, Pocahontas, Samuel Argall, John RolfeFirst Continental Congressmen: Richard Bland, Benjamin Harrison, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, Edmund Pendleton, Peyton Randolph, George WashingtonSigners of the Declaration: George Wythe, Richard Herny Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton Early Colonial Life On April 10, 1606, King James I (ruled 1566–1625) issued a charter creating two companies for Virginia, one based in London and one in Plymouth, to settle all of the land between the Passamaquoddy Bay in Maine and the Cape Fear River in North Carolina. Plymouth would get the north half and London the south.   The Londoners left on December 20, 1606, in three ships carrying 100 men and four boys, and they landed in what is today the Chesapeake Bay area. A landing party scouted for a suitable area, and the three ships worked their way up what they called (and is still called) the James River, landing at the site of Jamestown on May 13, 1607. The location of Jamestown was chosen because it would be easily defended since it was surrounded by water on three sides; the water was deep enough for the colonists ships, and Native Americans did not inhabit the land. Unfortunately, there were reasons the Native Americans did not inhabit the land; there was no potable water source, and the marshy landscape emitted great clouds of mosquitoes and flies. Disease, heat, and skirmishes with the Native Americans consumed both colonists and their supplies and by the time the first supply ship arrived in September, only 37 of the original 104 colonists were living. The Starving Time Captain John Smith assumed the colonys leadership in September 1608, and his leadership is credited with improving conditions and stockpiling stores. England continued to send supplies and colonists and in late Spring 1609, after the colony had been reorganized into a joint stock venture, London sent nine ships and 500 colonists. The ship bearing the deputy governor Thomas Gates wrecked off the Bermuda coast. The 400 survivors straggled into Jamestown in the late summer, too sick to work but fully capable of consuming the stockpile of stores. Disease and famine set in, and between October 1609 and March 1610, the colony population dropped from 500 to about 60. The winter became known as The Starving Time, and the colony became known as a deathtrap. During the early period of the colony, Jamestown was primarily a military outpost, populated by men, either gentlemen or indentured servants/ The servants who survived were obligated to work for their passage for a period of seven years. By 1614, those indentures began to expire and those who chose to remain became free laborers. Signs of Recovery Leadership of the colony by Thomas Dale and Thomas Gates kept the colony going between 1610 and 1616, and the colony began to grow strong after John Rolfe began his experiments with tobacco, Nicotiana rustica, to make it more palatable to the English taste.  When a royal family member of the Powhatan tribe named Pocahontas married John Rolfe in 1614, relations with the Native American community eased. That ended when she died in England in 1617. The first enslaved African Americans were brought to the colony in 1619. Jamestown had a high mortality rate due to disease, colonial mismanagement, and raids from Native Americans. The presence of women and family units encouraged some growth and stability, but factionalism and fiscal insolvency continued to plague Virginia. In 1622, a Powhatan attack on Virginia killed 350 settlers, plunging the colony into warfare that lasted a decade. Charter Changes Jamestown was originally founded from a desire to gain wealth and to a lesser extent to convert the natives to Christianity. Jamestown went through several forms of government in its first decades, and by 1624, they used a representative assembly known as the House of Burgesses, the first institutional instance of representative self-government on the North American continent. Threatened by the House of Burgesses, though, James I revoked the charter of the bankrupt Virginia Company in 1624, but his timely death in 1625 ended his plans for disbanding the assembly.  The colonys formal name was the Colony and Dominion of Virginia.   Virginia and the American Revolution Virginia was involved in fighting against what they saw as British tyranny from the end of the French and Indian War. The Virginia General Assembly fought against the Sugar Act which had been passed in 1764. They argued that it was taxation without representation. In addition, Patrick Henry was a Virginian who used his powers of rhetoric to argue against the Stamp Act of 1765 and legislation was passed opposing the act. A Committee of Correspondence was created in Virginia by key figures including Thomas Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee, and Patrick Henry. This was a method by which the different colonies communicated with each other about the growing anger against the British.   Virginia residents who were sent to the First Continental Congress in 1774 included Richard Bland, Benjamin Harrison, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, Edmund Pendleton, Peyton Randolph, George Washington. Open resistance started in Virginia the day after Lexington and Concord occurred, on April 20, 1775. Other than the Battle of Great Bridge in December 1775, little fighting happened in Virginia though they sent soldiers to help in the war effort. Virginia was one of the earliest to adopt independence, and its hallowed son, Thomas Jefferson, penned the Declaration of Independence in 1776.   Significance First permanent English settlement in the New World at Jamestown.It provided a source of fertile land and great wealth to England in the form of the cash crop, tobacco.With the House of Burgesses, America saw the first institutional instance of representative self-government. Sources and Further Reading Barbour, Philip L. (ed.) The Jamestown Voyages under the First Charter, 1606–1609. London: The Hakluyt Society, 2011.  Billings, Warren M. (ed.). The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1700, revised edition. Durham: The University of North Carolina Press, 2007.  Earle, Carville. Environment, Disease, and Mortality in Early Virginia. Journal of Historical Geography 5.4 (1979): 365–90. Print.Hantman, Jeffrey L. Monacan Millennium: A Collaborative Archaeology and History of a Virginia Indian People. University of Virginia Press, 2018.

Providing an overview of an organizational position of human resources Essay

Providing an overview of an organizational position of human resources as a staff or support function - Essay Example Hernandez and OConnor (2010) argue that in many health care organizations, persons heading the HR normally report to the top executives. In small healthcare organizations there will be no second level of executive management and therefore the HR will report directly to the CEO. As a staff or support function, the HR facilitates the work, striving to obtain the overall effectiveness and efficiency. Staff operations supports and enhance the work of an organizations through making it possible to continue producing products or provision of services. Staff areas in a health care organization are HR, housekeeping, finance, and maintenance. None of these areas provide direct services to the patients, but if they are not performed, the patient will experience both losses in quality and inefficiencies. The primarily role of the staff or support is to maintain the organization’s service environment and capability, making the line operations to continue operating in an optimal manner. Human resource services of any healthcare entity are provided through acquisition of staffs by HR planning, effective recruitment and selection, development of the employees through training, organizational change and developments, and carrier developments. Additionally, HR motivates the employees through performance appraisals, job satisfaction, provision of good working environments, and reward systems. According to Shi (2007) HR services are provided through maintenance such as provision of benefits, working conditions and services that may commit employees to the organizations. HR may be an organization’s expert and official voice regarding personnel policies, compensation, and benefits, and many of the legalities concerning employments. Human resource managers working in a health care organizations therefore provide service, assistance, guidance, and whatever other services that may be deemed appropriate according to the needs of the

Money creation in islamic economic system Term Paper

Money creation in islamic economic system - Term Paper Example be achieved, as Muslims perceive an economy to be healthy when its regulations, institutions and operations together with the conduct of the people and the entire society conform to Shari’ah. The part played by money as well as monetary management in the Islamic economy must conform to the structure of the entire economic system that is prescribed by Islam. Even though the Qur’an and the Sunnah, which are the key sources of Islam, do not give any direct or comprehensive direction in regard to managing money, they are clear in their disapproval of interest. Therefore, financial and monetary connections in the Islamic system must be conducted and organized in a way that prologues the use of interest in any manner. Ultimately, this limitation makes monetary management in the Islamic system to be different in a fundamental and critical manner when compared to the conventional capitalist system. The process of money creation by the conventional banking systems is considered as the most dominant undermining aspect in all the contemporary markets (Lippit, 1996, p. 256). Through creating money from nothing and introducing it into circulation, both the central banks and commercial banks have collectively resulted into a succession of speculative bubbles that may be followed back more than three years in the countries of the west. In the case that newly created money is spent on a particular asset like property or shares, the prices of these assets tend to increase naturally. On the other hand, when the banks make a decision to decrease their rates of creating money, buyers will no longer exist in the market and the prices of assets will start reducing. The capability to create money is thus a largely influential political and economic instrument, which is in most cases abused. Two Islamic guidelines function to prevent any form of money creation by the banking system and they i nclude the law of trust and the prohibition of interest. Through the issuance of promises to